Hi, getting visibility among core literary public is benchmark
of publishing success and this message is part of an aggressive online campaign
for the promotion and visibility of my two books [1] Political Internet and [2] Intimate Speakers among core reading public in
online space.
It will be really helpful if you are able
to help me forward, share, tweet, post, or tag this message or parts of this
message among potential
beneficiaries of the ideas in the books in your network, your friend’s
network or their networks?
Or anyone should according to you
benefit if they work broadly on anything related to social media, Internet,
society, politics, cyber sexuality, Internet pornography, intimacies,
women and online misogyny, introverts, underprivileged people, Diaspora,
cyberspace, Internet in education, International relations, digital politics,
social media and state, public sphere, civil society, social capital,
contentious politics and so on.
1. Political Internet: State and Politics in the Age of Social
Media, (Routledge 2017)
Buy it on Amazon:
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Publisher Website:
2. Intimate Speakers: Why Introverted and Socially Ostracized Citizens
Use Social Media, (Fingerprint! 2017).
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Contact the author
Biju
P R
Author,
Teacher, Blogger
Assistant
Professor of Political Science
Government
Brennen College
Thalassery
Kerala,
India
(Prepared by Biju P R, Assistant professor in Political Science, Govt. Brennen College, Thalassery, Kerala, India.)
Note- This post is incomplete, lot of grammatical and spelling errors! not enough time, but my First B A Political Science students need it.
In the beginning, God created heaven and earth. Earth was without form
and void. Darkness was up on the face of the deep. Thus continues the story of
genesis in biblical account of creation.
Almost all religious scriptures go on to explain somehow a similar
account of genesis. So, is Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, etc?
However, physical sciences tell us something a contrasting
illustration of creation. Often the story is difficult for us to grasp.
To the Astrophysicists, the earth, where we live on is just a particle
and too much insignificant, in the Milky Way, that is our Galaxy. Besides, the
Milky Way, our Galaxy is too much insignificant in the profusion of Galaxies in
the Universe. (For more reading please refer books, ‘Universe in a Nutshell’
and ‘A Brief History of Time’, by Stephen Halking).
NASA picked the age of our universe approximately 13.7 billion years,
Alas! Yet, we have only superficial account of space. In addition, our
understanding on this area is bit limited too. Doubt our ability to understand.
Social science, on the other is more interested in the social world
and the life world. Therefore, to understand the life on earth, we must first
know physical framework on which we live on. Moreover, there are many models of
physical framework on which we live on illustrates confusing narrations of life.
Life on the Planet
Fossilized imprints of microbial community were found between rock
layers around 3.5 billion years ago.
Few researchers believed that life appear not once only but many times
before, it finally occurred on planet.
Eventually, protoplasm, which is neither plant
nor animal, somehow achieved ability to reproduce. Like bacteria these
protoplasm originated in water. Some organism gradually, developed ability to
make chlorophyll. They survived and eventually became plants. Other organisms,
which were not able to develop chlorophyll, began feeding on plants and
developed in to animals.
Some pioneers ventured in to dry land around one
billion years ago. Some researchers even found microbes that lived on the vents
of volcanoes near 3.2 billion years ago. Yet, the firs to venture on dry land
were arthropod, a predecessor of crabs, lobsters, and insects.
The scorpion like creature later developed in to
half-terrestrial and half aquatic. Terrestrial animals included huge reptiles,
flying birds and small mammals.
Theory of
evolution
The question now comes by what process the one-celled
organism become complex animals and plants. Scientists have been able to
reconstruct the milestones: the appearance of primates among mammals, leading
eventually through apes, hominids, to modern humans, emergence of culture,
agricultures, within the past 5000 years ago, emrgence of urban areas and
lastly the State.
Darwin
In 1830 a Scottish geologists Charles lyell
published a book Principles of geology in which he mainatained that natural
forces had transformed the topography of the world we live in. The earth is
continually altered by forces of wind, rain, temperature. Lyell’s book gone
through the hands of amateur naturalist Charles Darwin. His voyage on a ship
called H MS Beagle led hime develop theory of evolution and publication of On
the Origin of Species. He offered proof of evolutionar development by a process
of natural selection.
Natural selection
Some individuals out of a total population of a
particular territory are born with a random feature. Individuals with such
features survive longer and have a chance to reproduce, passing these features
on to some of their descendants. Darwin says among plants and animals, more
offspring in each generation are born than can possibly survive.
Some individuals are more competent in fighting
for living space, resources, mates etc. he referred to a fact called survival
of fittest but it is often disputed. A fit organism is one which surviuve and
reproduce in a particular environment in a particular time.
Heredity
However, some phases of natural selection
puzzled Darwin. One was how beneficial traits are transmitted when it mated
with individuals who did not posses such traits. I nDarwin’s time it is
believed that offspring inherited a
blend of their parents raits but there was no suffieint evidence to prove it.
The answer to the puzzle came form an
Augustinian monk, Gregor Mendel who had been crossbreeding plants. Form his
experinments traits were not blended nor do they disapper completely.
Some traits appear dominats and some become
invisible. Each new born inherits has 6 chromosome, 23 from mother and 23 fom
father. So each person resembles each parents but not a copy of either.
Mednels work remained obscured until twentieth
century when the combination of Darwinian evolutionary theory and Mendelian
gennectics now called modern synthesis was validated by many researchers. Thus
genetics was developed.
Adaptation is process sthat intervens to ensure
that organisms acieve an adjustment to other environment that is beneficial and
it does so though the process of natural selection
The human evolution
Humans begin with appearance of mammals. Small
insignificant animals made appearance on earth during Paleocene epoch, or 65 to
55 million years ago.
One order of mammals were the primates about 55
million years ago. They took to the tress in forests. Primates are order of
mammals to which monkeys, apes, humans belong.
These successful tree dwellers began, about 33
million years ago, I nto first monkeys, and little later in to apes.
Eventually some apes came down of tress, and
attempted to survive on ground. These apes wre referred hominoids. Among them
Ramapithecines were more terrestrial and adapted to open territory. Due to
their large human sized appearences some researchers assumed their fossils
named ramapithecus, they were hominids.
Hominids differed from primates, since the have bipeds, they walk on two
legs, large brains, no protruding faces, smaller teeth.
The evolution of hominids in to Homospaiens, the
scientific name of humans is subject of anthropology, paleonotology, and
archeology. Great research is going here.
Moder nhuamsn have developed independently in
different parts of world. The issue of homospaiens whether rhave a single
African origin or not, has not been solved.
The latest research showed that three million
years ago the human lines was confined to Africa.
Modern
humans- Homo sapiens
Behaviourally modern humans originated in
sub-Saharan Africa. Humans have made
important cultural advancements. Languages, boatsn rafts, sophisticated stone
implements etc.
This point tey began to move away for mAfrica.
Reaching Europe and Asia between 60000 to 25000 years ago. Remains in Uk and
germany found that precursors of humans appeared some 300000 250000 yeas ago.
The definite appearance of Homo Sapiens Sapiens ( the species name of modern
humans) date back to 75000 years ago.
But, research findings in 2005 uncovered that bones found in Ethiopia’s
Lake Turkana are roughly 195000 years old. The best know of these fossils are
that of Neanderthals, some of whom have inhabited Western Europe as early as
36000 years ago.
It is from Neanderthals we came to stereo type
that cave man, for the yhave thick skull, heavy brow ridges, broad nose, low
foreheads, not much chin, etc
Scientists
do not agree on as Neanderthals as precursors or ancestors of modern
human. The next fossil found in France dating 35000 to 30000 years ago, of
Cro-Magnon humans. They are classified belonging to Homo Sapiens Sapiens.
According to population geneticists, people in Basque, France and Spain are
direct descendants of Cro-Magnon.
Agriculture-
Cultivation and Domesticisation
In new Stone Age between 12000 to 10000 years
ago a transiton occurred. Humans altred form foraging for food to domestication
of plants and animals.
This transion eventually led hunting, gathering
and fishing people in to food producers, farming was preceded by domesticsation
of plants and animals.
Domesticisation nwas also facilitated by ending
of Ice Age.
Retreating glaciers left planet warmer wetter
and favouring vegetation.
Domesticisation led to agriculture. And
deliberate growing of food.
The world’s first farmers were probably
inhabitants of Near east in the region of Fertile of Crescent including parts
of Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Northern Turkey, Iraq, heading to Persian
Gulf.
What is the
biological foundation of society?
The physiology of humans became precursors of
some of social structure as early as hominids stage. For instance , walking o ntwo legs may have
developed because it was easier for hominids to see both predaotrs and prey as
they walked on African savanna.
Walking up right, freed two limbs for carrying
things, foods, and their young for m place to place.
Having hands free, led in to use of tools for
digging roots or transporting objects.
Thinking about how to use tools led
enlightenment of brain
A bigger nrained infant that pass through the
birth canal of an up right walking mother had to depend more on her for
survival. A mother saddled with a helpless infant was herself not very
effective provider. Hence a division of labour occurred according to sex.
Females were able to forage in for plants, roots
even with an infantin arms but both dependent on male occasionally for meat and
product of hunting
This distinct habit of human sharing led to
family and institutions
Humans females lost their estrus and began to be
sexully receptive all the time
This helped them forge strong bond with specific
males, lessend completion among males for females and each pai enfited infant.
Rudimentary moral system developed “do
unto others as you would have them do unto you”. Taboos developed. Designs to
force individuals to opt mates outside family so as to reduce hostility within
family. And among troops
Feeling such as gratitude,sympathy, friendship
may have emerged as well a sshame, disgrace moral indignation.
When groups grown up failry large sized, some
organisation became necessary, progress in social organisation led to development social lsystems, discovery
of fire helped a lot.
Domestication of fire allowed humans to wander
in to colder climate.
Robert S mcelvan in book Eve’s Seed: Biology,
the sexes, and the Course of Hitory 2000 observed that reasons for masculine and feminine qualities
in societies.
In early hunter gathering societies, men and
women shared power equally. When agriculture grow up the product of hunt was no
longer necessary.
The group could survive on harvest of fields.
Because men could not bear or nourish a child, they found their role
diminished. They were basically out of job. This occurred around 8000 BC.
Looking for new roles, men began to take over
agriculture in the process developed valuso f aggressiveness, sompetitions etc.
this ‘maladaptive strategy ‘ eventually led to tradition of patriarchy. War was
a consequence.
What had worked successfll in the afarican
savanna , aggressive male hunting behavous got redirected towards other males
and subjection of their women.
Emily Eakn in Tilling history with biological tool
(New York Times) says males trying to compensate for loss of roles for which
biological evolution had prepared them led to different gender roles.
