Prepared by
Biju. P. R.
Assistant Professor and H o D
Department of Political Science
Government Brennen College
-Any
understanding about social world presupposes and necessitates a methodology, a
perspective and mode of enquiry.
-When we
enquire, why poverty, violence, terrorism, unemployment, gender problems,
social discrimination and an endless lists of avoidable social problems, we are
often hunt by a whole lot of understanding surrounding us.
-A bunch of
perspectives and understanding lead us to conclusions encountering our social
world, and let it be, nonprofessional understanding, be it theological, be it linguistic,
be it common sense, be it opinionated and be it superstitious.
-Yet, among
all this understandings and perspectives, one thing that makes all other understanding
inferior and insignificant is the scientific understanding surrounding the
social sciences.
-Corruption,
middle class anxieties, political apathy, gender discrimination, poverty, unemployment,
inflation, fiscal crisis, diplomatic stalemate, caste troubles, terrorism, war, among few, the social sciences
have a mode of enquiry, an approach, a systematic understanding and a perfect
solution.
-All this
approaches to social sciences are largely drawn up in a series of concepts, and
perspectives.
-A beginner
to any social science discipline should develop a deep understanding about some
basic concepts and assumption in social sciences. With out preliminary
knowledge about the preliminary concepts of social sciences, we are not able to
develop and intellectual craftsmanship, a sociological imagination and how to
know what to know.
-A beginner
to social sciences must have a preliminary grounding on the basic assumptions,
concepts and epistemologies in social sciences, such as Research strategy-
induction and deduction, Ontology- the objectivism and constructivism , Epistemology-
positivism and interpretivism, Methodology- quantitative and qualitative. Let
us examine this one by one.
Induction and deduction
In social
science, there are two ways of arriving at a conclusion: deductive reasoning
and inductive reasoning.
Deductive
Reasoning
Deductive
reasoning happens when a researcher works from the more general information to
the more specific. Sometimes this is called the “top-down” approach because the
researcher starts at the top with a very broad spectrum of information and they
work their way down to a specific conclusion. For instance, a researcher might
begin with a theory about his or her topic of interest. From there, he or she
would narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that can be tested. The
hypotheses are then narrowed down even further when observations are collected
to test the hypotheses. This ultimately leads the researcher to be able to test
the hypotheses with specific data, leading to a confirmation (or not) of the
original theory and arriving at a conclusion.
This
tradition begins from Plato. For instances, every day, I leave for work in my
car at eight o’clock. Every day, the drive to work takes 45 minutes I arrive to
work on time. Therefore, if I leave for work at eight o’clock today, I will be
on time.
Theory, hypothesis,
observation and confirmation, is the mode arriving at conclusion here.
Inductive
Reasoning
Inductive
reasoning works the opposite way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. This is sometimes called a “bottom up” approach.
The researcher begins with specific observations and measures, begins to then
detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses to
explore, and finally ends up developing some general conclusions or theories. This
tradition begins from Aristotle. An example of inductive reasoning can be seen
in this set of statements: Today, I left for work at eight o’clock and I
arrived on time. Therefore, every day that I leave the house at eight o’clock,
I will arrive to work on time.
Observation,
pattern, tentative hypothesis, and theory are the mode arriving at
conclusion.
Ontology- Objectivism and Constructivism.
In the
social sciences, ontology covers the assumptions social scientists hold about
reality: how they see the world.
It refers
to "Way" and the "Ways" of Knowing. The term ontology derives from Greek, with “onto” meaning
“being”, and “logos” usually interpreted as “science”; so that ontology, as
traditionally understood, is the science or study of being.
The term ontology
concerns what is said to exist in some world that which potentially can be
talked about. Wand and Weber (1993:220) refer to ontology as "a branch of philosophy concerned with
articulating the nature and structure of the world." By ontology is sometimes
also meant a set of terms and their associated definitions intended to describe
the world in question (e.g., Uschold, 1995:1).
Ontology is
the most preliminary and fundamental assumption surrounding the social world. For
instances, if you study gender discrimination, just go to the nearest Textile
shop and see the number of women staff. Seeing this, do you think that women
are empowered in our area since great number of women work in shops like
textiles, and do you make the fundamental assumption that world is women
friendly or do you assume that world is patriarchal? Ontology will address such
fundamental issues of how to know and ways to know. See your college and wonder
the large number of girl students studying there. Do you assume that great number
of women affording higher education is a signifier of the fact that world is
women friendly or do you think that there is an inside story to this fact that
the number women does not relate with women and their empowerment and do you
dare to assume that the world is patriarchal still. Your ontology will address
this fact of social world.
Two
different worldviews will be considered: An objectivistic and a constructivistic
in ontology.
Objectivistic Ontology
Objects
with properties exist in the social world independent of the inquiring
observer. With an objectivistic worldview, a mountain is a mountain for
everyone, a product is a product for everyone, and a work process is
a work process for everyone. The meaning of a phenomenon is inherent to the
phenomenon and can be experienced by interacting with it.
Hence,
sense making from an objectivist point of view is considered as rational
analysis of data in a mental problem space and construction of deductive arguments
of cause-and-effect
Constructivistic Ontology
Firstly,
realities are local and specific in the sense that they vary
between groups of individuals. Secondly, reality is actively constructed,
i.e., not merely discovered. Thirdly, reality is socially constructed,
i.e., the constructions are not personal or technical. Although perception and
thinking necessarily is individual, the construction process involves other
social and cultural artifacts and therefore inevitably becomes social. Your
professor is some one who teaches you about ontology but when he finishes the
lecture forty students in the class will get forty notions or more about
ontology. This means that meaning is socially decided and those who see it.
Sense-making
from a constructivist point of view is a process of attributing
meaning to constructions according to the actor's local reality and
simultaneously influencing the local reality. How an actor interprets a
phenomenon and whether it makes sense or not depends upon the local reality of
the actor. This view is consistent with ideas associated with hermeneutics.
In the vocabulary of hermeneutics, the local reality can be viewed as a horizon,
being the pre-understanding that all perceived phenomena are interpreted and
made sense of against. An actor may access his horizon through a process of bracketing,
being an attempt at isolating and investigating one's own presumptions.
Epistemology
How we know
what we know .Epistemology addresses the why question in ontology. It answers the
questions in ontology. It gives a framework for reaching at conclusion that
raised in the ontological position. For instance, while seeing women staff at
shops people concluded that world is women friendly or patriarchic and epistemology goes to
explain why the world is so designed.
The
epistemology of the social sciences is a sub-topic of the philosophy of social
science; an area of study with a substantial amount of literature available. By
a study of epistemology, it means the study of what is knowledge in social
science, how knowledge is acquired in social science, how knowledge is
justified, and how social scientists come to know what they know.
Epistemology
is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It attempts to answer the
basic question: what distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false
(inadequate) knowledge? Let us start with the Greek philosophers. In Plato's
view knowledge is merely an awareness of absolute, universal Ideas or Forms,
existing independent of any subject trying to apprehend to them. Though
Aristotle puts more emphasis on logical and empirical methods for gathering
knowledge, he still accepts the view that such knowledge is an apprehension of
necessary and universal principles. Following the Renaissance, two main
epistemological positions dominated philosophy: empiricism, which sees knowledge as the product of
sensory perception, and rationalism,
which sees it as the product of rational reflection.
Positivism
In a
positivist view of the world, science was seen as the way to get at truth, to
understand the world well enough so that we might predict and control it. The
world and the universe were deterministic -- they operated by laws of cause and
effect that we could discern if we applied the unique approach of the
scientific method.
Positivism suggests
that all knowledge is grounded in empirical data. The quest for a certainty of knowledge
grounded in the idea that just as day is likely to follow night, condition A is
likely to be associated with condition B in a regular and hence highly
predictable manner. Sea waves in to land, earth rotates 23.5 degree perpendicular to the
centre. Apple falls down to earth. There are cause and effect relation to every
social phenomenon. Positivism emphasizes the
quantifiability and predictability of mental and behavioral processes. Models and methods from the natural sciences
are frequently applied to the study of human affairs.
Positivism:
The Researcher as Scientist
! The
Natural Sciences as a Model
! The Quest
for Objective Knowledge
! A
Deductive or Theory-Testing Approach *
! Underpinned
by an Objectivist or Realist ontology: facts are facts
! Explaining
how and why things happen: Measurement, Correlation,
Statistical
Logic, Verification
! Typical
Methods: Surveys, Questionnaires, Random Sampling
! Example
Hypothesis: Violence on TV Leads to Juvenile Violence
! Problems
with this approach?
Interpretivism
Interpretive
research is especially helpful when the questions being examined are
explanatory in nature. It is then
necessary to focus heavily on human intent and meaning, which is at the heart
of interpretive research. Interpretive
ontology views all reality as subjective reality and that is why it cannot be
sufficiently understood from the positivist's distance. Every human being is unique and every bit of
social life has its own meaning, feeling, intention and motivation. This ontology takes a holistic and systems
perspective, which sees everything and everyone as interconnected.
Interpretivism:
Researcher as Detective
! Arises
from a Critique of Using the Natural Sciences as a Model for Social Research
! The Quest
for Subjective Knowledge
! An
Inductive or Theory-Building Approach *
! Underpinned
by a Subjectivist ontology: people are people
! Understanding
How and Why Things Happen: Elucidating Meaning
! Typical
Approaches: Ethnographic Study; In-depth Interviews; Analytical Approaches
! Revisiting
the Example: What are the Causes of Juvenile Violence?
! Problems
with this Approach
Research methodology
-It is a
systematic way to solve problem. It is a science of studying how research is to
be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about
their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research
methodology. It
is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim
is to give the work plan of research. Methodology concerns research strategy as
whole.
-There
are a number of ways in which research methodology is defined by traditional
scholars.A methodology involves presenting rules of procedure about matters
such as collection of data and their analysis. These rules are impersonal in
that they are meant to apply equally to all researchers.it is assumed that any
two researchers who approach same problem should arrive at identical as long as
neither infringes methodological rules.So individual bias is avoided from
research process.
Quantitative and qualitative metholdology
-Quantitative
and qualitative methods are studied within the context of positivistic and
phenomenological paradigms. The researche can be quantitative or qualitative or even
both. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities.
Qualitative research is concerned with quailtative phenomenon involving
quality. It is non-numerical,descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. Its
aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation. We measure and
weigh things in the study of substance or structure. Can we measure or weigh
patterns? We cannot measure or weigh patterns. But to study patterns we must
map a configuration of relationships. That is, structures involve quantities
whereas patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to investigate why certain
data are random then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study how
random the data is, what is the mean,variance and distribution function then it
becomes quantitative. Explaining how digestion of food takes place in our body
is a qualitative description. It does not involve any numbers or data and
quantities. The detection of a particular compound is a qualitative analysis.
This can be done by carrying out physical or chemical tests. Determination of
exact amount of a particular compound present in a volume is essentially quantitative
analysis. This can be done by volumetric, gravimetric and calorimetric methods
or instrumental methods. Experimental and simulation studies are generally
quantitative research.
Quantitative
Quantitative research methods focus on
statistical approaches .Quantitative methods emphasise on objective
measurements and numerical analysis of data collected through polls,
questionnaires or surveys. While quantitative involves many phenomena with
few variables quantitative
data involves numbers quantitative
research is deductive. All
quantitative research requires a hypothesis before research can begin. In quantitative research, the researcher
is ideally an objective observer that neither participates in nor influences
what is being studied. Quantitative
research is generally better for confirming and clarifying. To quantify data and generalize results
from a sample to the population of interest.
To
measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample. Sometimes
followed by qualitative research which is used to explore some findings further
Qualitative
Qualitative methods are based on content
analysis, comparative analysis, grounded theory, and interpretation (Strauss,
1990). Qualitative
research focuses on understanding social phenomena through interviews, personal
comments etc. Qualitative
research usually involves few cases with many variables. Typically qualitative data involves
words.
Qualitative
research is inductive. In
qualitative research, a hypothesis is not needed to begin research. In qualitative research, however, it is thought
that the researcher can learn the most about a situation by participating
and/or being immersed in it.. Qualitative
research is usually better for exploring, understanding, and uncovering. To gain
an understanding of underlying reasons and motivations. To provide insights
into the setting of a problem, generating ideas and/or hypotheses for later
quantitative research. To uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion
