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Biju
P R
Author,
Teacher, Blogger
Assistant
Professor of Political Science
Government
Brennen College
Thalassery
Kerala,
India
1. Political Internet: State and Politics in the Age of Social Media,
(Routledge 2017), Amazon https://www.amazon.in/
2. Intimate Speakers: Why Introverted and Socially Ostracized Citizens Use Social Media, (Fingerprint! 2017)
Amazon: http://www.amazon.in/dp/
Political theory
seeks to understand, explain and analyse the political phenomena and prescribe
ways and means to rectify the shortcomings. Political theory is a complex
subject. This is because in the Western tradition, it is at least 2300 years
old and has been attended to by philosophers, theologians, kings, economists,
sociologists, popes and others.
The number of
political theorists is very large, and the interests and commitments of those
engaged in this field have been so different that we are faced with the
difficult task of answering a simple question: What is political theory?
Moreover, because of the diversity and changes in the socio-economic circumstances,
there have been substantial changes in both the subject matter of political
theory and the methods of studying it.
For the purpose of
study, political theory is divided into distinct streams such as classical,
modern, empirical etc.
While the classical
political theory was dominated by philosophy and dealt with the description,
explanation, prescription and evaluation of the political phenomena; empirical
political theory claimed to be a science and has been primarily concerned with
the description and explanation of the political reality. Of late, contemporary
political theory has tried to blend the theoretical and practical aspects. We
shall talk in detail on this subject in the course of reading this post.
The
word theory is Greek; and in the Greek language it belongs to a short
vocabulary of five words which is worth considering:
Thea: something seen, a ‘spectacle’, an occurrence.
Theorein: to look at, to
observe what is going on.
Theoros: an intelligent
observer; one who looks at what is going on, asks himself questions about it
and tries to understand it.
Theoria: the act or
procedure of seeking to understand what is going on: ‘theorizing’.
Theorema: what may emerge
from ‘theorizing’.
A conclusion is reached by a theoros. This means ‘an understanding’ of what is going on. A ‘theorem’. Aristotle, at one point in the Politics, recognized or identified a polis as a collectivity of human beings, and he asks the question: What other collectivities is it like or unlike? Is it like the collectivity of a swarm of bees, or a colony of ants, or a ‘tribe’, or a ‘household’? He finds that there is something wrong with each of these comparisons, but by asking this sort of question he has tied himself to a specific identification of a polis, and the only conclusion he can reach is a better appreciation of a polis as a collectivity. In short, the conclusion to the enquiry is exactly tied to the ‘fact’, the recognition, the identification of polis with which he began. He has, no doubt, learned more about a polis, but only about a polis identified as a collectivity of human beings.
But
it is enough, perhaps, to suggest some lines to go upon in thinking about the
expression ‘political theory’ or ‘theory of politics’.
So let us move on to understand what is meant by political theory and what role it plays in our every day life…..
Should people be more
equal?
Is the state more
important than the individual?
Can a socialist
society be free?
Is political violence
ever justified?
Must we tolerate the
intolerant?
Can the majority
dictate to the minority?
Is it right that the
rich should also be powerful?
Such questions are
the concerns of political theory. Although they sound deceptively simple,
susceptible to ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers, when we try to answer them it becomes
evident that each conceals a wealth of disputable assumptions and that the
meaning of its key words is also disputable.
Furthermore, the answers inevitably express opinions on what ought to be the case, rather than describing what is the case. Political values and ideals are at stake here, and choices between ideals must be made. The practice of political theory helps us to set about answering such questions logically, and to criticize the answers which others give, by dealing with political matters at a more abstract and general level than does political science.
Plato looked to
absolute justice to justify his Guardians as rightful rulers, Christian
theologians of the middle ages looked to God’s intentions to sanction the rule
of kings, while contract theorists such as Hobbes and Locke saw government as
founded on the people’s rational choice. But Plato, Hobbes and Locke were also
among the foremost critics of the politics of their own societies and voiced
this opposition in their descriptions of government as it should be,
ideal government. Naturally, there have also been theoretical apologists for
most existing regimes, but propagandists are intrinsically less interesting
except to the social historian, and rarely end up on political theory
syllabuses.
Political theory is a
technique of analysis which can be used to overturn, as well as to uphold.
Departing from fact
and detail, it describes and explains politics in abstract and general terms,
which allow scope for the critical imagination.
Political theory may
therefore be defined as the discipline which aims to explain, justify or
criticize the disposition of power in society. It delineates the
balance of power between states, groups and individuals.
Definition
At
the most general level, political theory is ‘a body of knowledge related to the
phenomenon of the state’. While ‘theory’ refers to ‘a systematic knowledge’,
‘political’ refers to ‘matters of public concern’. According to David Held,
political theory is a ‘network of concepts and generalizations about political
life involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and
key features of government, state and society, and about the political
capabilities of human beings
Andrew Hacker defines
it as ‘a combination of a disinterested search for the principles of good state
and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for knowledge of
political and social reality on the other’.
George Catlin
expresses says, ‘political theory includes political science and political
philosophy. While science refers to the phenomena of control in many forms over
all the process of whole social field... It is concerned with means; political
philosophy is concerned with the end or final value, when man asks ‘what is the
national good’ or ‘what is good society.
We can sum up the
meaning of political theory by referring to the comprehensive definition given
by Gould and Kolb who say that it is ‘a sub-field of political science which
includes:
i)
political
philosophy—a moral theory of politics and a historical study of political
ideas,
ii)
ii)
a scientific criterion,
iii)
iii)
a linguistic analysis of political ideas,
iv)
iv)
the discovery and systematic development of generalizations about political
behavior.
On the basis of the
above definitions, we can conclude that political theory is concerned with the
study of the phenomena of the state both in philosophical as well as empirical
terms. It not only involves explanation, description and prescription regarding
the state and political institutions but also evaluation of their moral
philosophical purpose. It is not only concerned with what the state is but also
what it ought to be.
According to
Weinstein, political theory can be viewed as an activity which involves posing
questions, developing responses to those questions and creating imaginative
perspectives on the public life of human beings. It has been probing into
questions like: nature and purpose of the state; why one should prefer a kind
of state than the other; what the political organization aims at; by what
criteria its ends, its methods and its achievements should be judged; what is
the relation between state and the individual.
Political theory has
been engaged in these age old questions from Plato onwards because it is
concerned with the fate of man which depends upon his ability to create a kind
of political community in which rulers and ruled are united in the pursuit of
common good. It is not necessary that political theory can provide answers to
all questions but it can at least tell us how one should go about the solution.
NATURE
AND SIGNIFICANCE
Distinction
between political theory and political thought, political philosophy and
political science.
Political
theory is the study of the phenomena of the state both from philosophical as
well as empirical points of view. In this context, certain similar terms are
also used such as political thought, political philosophy, and political
science. Although all of them are concerned with explaining the political
phenomena, yet political theory is distinct from them. The distinction of
political theory from other terms is as follows.
Political
theory and political thought
It
is generally believed that political thought is the general thought comprising
of theories and values of all those persons or a section of the community who
think and write on the day-do-day activities, policies and decisions of the
state, and which has a bearing on our present living. These persons can be
philosophers, writers, journalists, poets, political commentators etc.
Political thought has no ‘fixed’ form and can be in the form of treatise,
speeches, political commentaries etc. What is important about political thought
is that it is ‘time bound’ since the policies and programmes of the governments
change from time to time.
Thus
we have Greek thought or Roman thought of ancient period or the political
thought of the medieval ages. Political theory, on the other hand, is the
systematic speculation of a particular writer who talks specifically about the
phenomena of the state. This speculation is based on certain hypothesis which
may or may not be valid and may be open to criticism.
Theory
provides a model of explanation of political reality as is understood by the
writer. As such there can be different political theories of the same period.
Also, political theory is based on certain discipline-be it philosophy,
history, economics or sociology. And lastly, since the task of theory is not
only to explain the political reality but also to change it (or to resist
change), political theory can be conservative, critical or revolutionary.
According to Barker, while political thought is the immanent philosophy of a
whole age, political theory is the speculation of a particular thinker. While
political thought is implicit and immersed in the stream of vital action,
political theory is explicit and may be detached from the political reality of
a particular period.
Political
theory and political philosophy
Philosophy is called
‘science of wisdom’—wisdom about this world, man or God. This wisdom is
all-inclusive and tries to explain everything. When this wisdom is applied to
the study of political phenomena or the state, it is called political philosophy.
Political philosophy belongs to the category of normative political theory. It
is concerned with not only explaining what ‘is’ but also what ‘ought’ to be.
Political philosophy is not concerned with contemporary issues but with certain
universal issues in the political life of man such as nature and purpose of the
political organisation, basis of political authority, nature of rights,
liberty, equality, justice etc.
The distinction
between political philosophy and political theory is explained by the fact that
whereas a political philosopher is a political theorist, but a political
theorist may not necessarily be a political philosopher. For example, David
Easton is an eminent political theorist but is not considered a political
philosopher. Though theory deals with the same issues as political philosophy,
it can explain them both from philosophical as well as empirical points of
view. In other words, while political philosophy is abstract or speculative,
political theory can be both normative and empirical.
A political theorist
is as much interested in explaining the nature and purpose of the state as in
describing the realities of political behaviour, the actual relations between
state and citizens, and the role of power in the society. As has been pointed
out by Arnold Bretch, philosophical explanations are theories too, but they
are non-scientific.
Political
theory is concerned both with political institutions and the ideas and
aspirations that form the basis of those institutions. However, we must not
forget that though we can analytically distinguish between philosophy and
theory, yet if political theory is separated from political philosophy, its
meaning will appear distorted and it will prove barren and irrelevant. Theory
must be supplemented by philosophy.
Political
theory and political science
As
a discipline, political science is much more comprehensive and includes
different forms of speculation in politics such as political thought, political
theory, political philosophy, political ideology, institutional or structural
framework, comparative politics, public administration, international law and
organizations etc. With the rise of political science as a separate discipline,
political theory was made one of its subfields. However, when used specifically
with emphasis on ‘science’ as distinct from ‘theory’, political science refers
to the study of politics by the use of Scientific
methods in contrast to political philosophy, which is free to follow intuition.
Political theory when opposed to political philosophy is political science.
Political science is concerned with describing and explaining the realities of
political behaviour, generalizations about man and political institutions on
empirical evidence, and the role of power in the society. Political theory, on
the other hand, is not only concerned about the behavioural study of the
political phenomena from empirical point of view but also prescribing the goals
which states, governments, societies and citizens ought to pursue. Political
theory also aims to generalize about the right conduct in the political life
and about the legitimate use of power.
Thus,
political theory is neither pure thought, nor philosophy, nor science. While it
draws heavily from all of them, yet it is distinct from them. Contemporary
political theory is trying to attempt a synthesis between political philosophy
and political science.
Characteristics
of political theory
Political
theory is an intellectual and moral creation of man. Generally it is the
speculation of a single individual who is attempting to offer us a theoretical
explanation of the political reality i.e. the phenomena of the state. Every
theory by its very nature is an explanation, built upon certain hypothesis
which may be valid (or not) and which are always open to criticism.
Therefore,
what we find in political theory is a number of attempts made by thinkers from
Plato onwards to unravel the mysteries of man’s political life. They have given
so many modes of explanations which may or may not convince us but to which we
cannot pass any final judgment. Political theory is largely.
An
attempt to seek the truth as the thinker sees it and it is usually expressed
through a treatise such as Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics, Hobb’es’
Leviathan, or Rawls’ A Theory of Justice.
Secondly,
political theory contains an explanation of man, society and history. It probes
the nature of man and society: how a society is made up and how it works; what
are the important elements; what are the sources of conflict in the society and
how they can be resolved.
Thirdly,
political theory is discipline based. It means that though the phenomena which
the theorist seeks to explain remains the same i.e. the state, the writer may
be a philosopher, historian, economist, theologian or a sociologist. Thus we
are confronted by a variety of political theories, each distinguished by a
discipline on which it is based.
Fourthly,
political theory not only comprehends and explains the social and political
reality but is also actively engaged in hastening the process of history. The
task of political theory is not only to understand and explain but also to
device ways and means to change the society. As Laski put it, the task is not
merely one of description of what it is but also a prescription of what ought
to be.
Thus,
political theory recommends agencies of action as well as means of reform,
revolution or conservation. It contains programmes that embody both ends and
means. Political theory plays a double role: to understand society and to
suggest how to remove the imperfections.
And
lastly, political theory also includes political ideology. Ideology in simple
language means a system of beliefs, values and ideals by which people allow
themselves to be governed’. We find a number of ideologies in the modern world
such as liberalism, Marxism, socialism etc. All political theories from Plato
to date reflect a distinct ideology of the writer.
Political
theory in the form of political ideology includes a system of political values,
institutions and practices, which a society has adopted as its ideal. For
example, all political theories adopted by Western Europe and America have been
dominated by liberalism and the theories accepted by China and erstwhile USSR
were influenced by a particular brand of Marxism. Each brand of theory or
ideology in this sense claims for itself the attributes of universality and
compels others to accept it, leading to what is generally known as ‘ideological
conflicts’.
In
short, political theory is associated with the explanation and evaluation of
the political phenomena and this phenomena can be examined as a statement of
ideas and ideals, as an agent of socio-economic change, and as an ideology.
Issues
in political theory
The
nature of political theory can also be understood from the kind of issues it
has been grappling with during the long span of more than 2300 years. Different
political issues have been dominant in different epochs. Classical political
theory was primarily concerned with the search for a perfect political order.
As such it analysed the basic issues of political theory such as the nature and
purpose of the state, basis of political authority, the problem of political
obligation and political disobedience. It was more concerned with what the
state ought to be i.e. the ideal state.
The
rise of modern nation-state and the industrial revolution gave birth to a new
kind of society, economy and polity. Modern political theory starts from
individualism and made liberty of the individual as the basic issue. Hence it
was concerned with issues like rights, liberty, equality, property and justice
for the individual, how to create a state based upon individual consent, and a
right to change the government. At one time, it also became important to explain
the interrelation between one concept and the other such as liberty and
equality, justice and liberty, equality and property.
The
empirical political theory, particularly after the second world war, shifted
the emphasis from concepts to the political behaviour of man. It invented a
number new issues largely borrowed from other social sciences. Some of the
important issue of empirical political theory were authority, legitimacy,
elite, party, group, political system, political culture etc.
During the last twenty
years, quite a number of different issues have come to dominate the scene of
political theory. With the resurgence of value-based political theory, there is
once again an emphasis on the issues of freedom, equality and justice. Apart
from them, some new issues have come to dominate the scene such as feminism,
environmentalism, ecology, community, issue concerning development,
subalteranism etc.
These are the issues,
which have been engaging the attention of political theorists today. We shall
touch upon these issues in the relevant chapters in this book. Moreover
traditional picture of studying the issues from a single
perspective i.e. either from liberal or Marxist point of view, is
also changing. However, the method was not wrong but today it is found
inadequate. To give an example, both liberalism and Marxism have viewed justice
or freedom in the male dominated sphere of government and economy and ignored
the freedom of the traditional female spheres of home and family. An adequate
theory of sexual equality will involve considerations that simply are not
addressed in the traditional right or left debates. Similarly, communitarians
have also exposed the weakness of single perspective approach. Recent political
theory is trying to redefine the issues of liberty, equality and justice in the
context of ultimate values of common good.
Significance
The
significance of political theory can be derived from the purpose it serves or
supposed to serve and the task performed by it. Political theory is a form of
all embracing system of values which a society adopts as its ideal with a view
to understand the political reality and, if necessary, to change it.
It
involves speculation at higher level about the nature of good life, the
political institutions appropriate for its realization, to what end the state
is directed and how it should be constituted to achieve those ends. The
significance of political theory lies in providing the moral criteria that
ought to be used to judge the ethical worth of a political state and to propose
alternative political arrangements and practices likely to meet the moral
standards. The importance of political theory lies in providing
i) A
description of the political phenomena,
ii) A
non-scientific (based upon philosophy or religion) or a scientific (based upon
empirical studies) explanation,
iii) Proposals
for the selection of political goals and political action, and
iv) Moral
judgment. Examples of such a political theory can be found in Plato’s Republic,
or Rawls’ A Theory of Justice or Nozic’s Anarchy, State and Utopia.
As
mentioned earlier, the fundamental question facing human beings has been ‘how
to live together’. Politics is an activity engaged with the management of the
collective affairs of society. The significance of theory lies in evolving
various doctrines and approaches regarding the nature and purpose of the state,
the bases of political authority, vision of an ideal state, best form of
government, relations between the state and the individual and basic issues
such as rights, liberty, equality, property, justice etc. Again what has become
important in our times is to explain the inter-relation between one concept and
another such as the relationship between liberty and equality, equality and
property, justice and property. This is as important as peace, order,
harmony-stability and unity in the society. In fact peace and harmony in the
society very much
depends upon how we interpret and implement the values of liberty, equality and
justice etc.
Contemporary states face a number of problems such as poverty,
over-population, corruption, racial and ethnic tensions, environment pollution
etc., conflicts among individuals, groups as well as nations. The task of
political theory is to study and analyse more profoundly than others, the
immediate and potential problems of political life of the society and to supply
the practical politician with an alternative course of action, the consequences
of which have been fully thought of.
According
to David Held, the task of political theorist is really demanding because in
the absence of systematic study, there is a danger that politics will be left
to the ignorant and self-seeking people who only want to pursue it as ‘power. In
short, the significance of political theory lies in the fact that it provides
systematic thinking about the nature and purpose of state and government. It
helps us to establish a correlation between ideals and the socio-political
phenomena. It makes the individual aware of his rights and duties in the
society. It helps us to understand the nature or’ the socio-economic system and
its problems like poverty, violence, corruption, ethnicity etc. Since the task
of political theory is not only to understand and explain the social reality
but also to change it, political theory helps us to evolve ways and means to
change society either through reform or revolution. When political theory
performs its function well, it is one of the most important weapons of struggle
for the advancement of humanity. To imbibe people with correct theories may
make them choose their goals and means correctly so as to avoid the roads that
end in disappointment.
MAJOR
SCHOOLS OF POLITICAL THEORY
As
mentioned above, there is considerable diversity in political theory. Political
theory in the western world is a continuous dialogue extended over time.
Broadly speaking, although there is more or less a continuity regarding the
subject matter of political theory, yet the approaches to its study have been
changing during the past 2000 years. We shall now consider some major schools,
which have helped in the development of certain key concepts of political
theory. These are:
1.
Classical Political Theory
2.
Liberal Political Theory
3.
Marxist Political Theory
4.
Empirical-Scientific Political Theory
5.
Contemporary Political Theory
Classical political theory
Classical
political theory starts from 6th century B.C. and covers the political ideas of
a large number of Greek, Roman and Christian thinkers and philosophers. Plato
and Aristotle are the two great giants of the classical period who had enormous
influence in their own times and on later thinking.
Classical
political theory included i) politics, ii) the idea of theory, and iii) the
practice of philosophy.
Politics
referred to participation in the public affairs, theory referred to the
systematic knowledge gained through observation, and philosophy referred to the
quest for reliable knowledge - knowledge that would enable men to become wiser
in the conduct of collective life. Thus, political theory was a ‘systematic
inquiry to acquire reliable knowledge about matters concerning public affairs’
Classical
political theory has certain specific characteristics. Firstly, it was
dominated by philosophy. The great philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle were
great because of the comprehensiveness and scope of their thought. They were
more than political thinkers. The dimensions of political theory included
description, explanation, prescription and evaluation.
Secondly,
there was no clear distinction between philosophical, theological and political
issues. Political theory was not an autonomous subject as it is today.
Thirdly,
political theory was concerned with probing into issues, asking important
questions and serving as a sort of conscience keeper of politics.
Fourthly,
classical tradition believed that political theory dealt with the political
whole - the theory must be all-comprehensive and all-inclusive. It included
ruling, warfare, religious practices, economic problems or relations between
the classes and also beliefs such as God, justice, equality etc. The quest for
an absolutely best form of government was also an important preoccupation of
classical political theory.
Fifthly,
since classical tradition believed in the ultimate good, political good was a
part of it. State was a part of the moral framework of man’s earthly living.
State was considered as a natural institution and prior to the individual
because ‘the individual when isolated is not self-sufficing and therefore he is
like a part in relation to the whole’. State was also an educational
institution which made man a good citizen, sensitive to the recognition of law
and virtue of civic obedience. The end of the state was the promotion of good
life. Though there has been a debate about which comes first - the common good
or the individual good, but the classical tradition believed that the common
good was the good of the individuals as part and member of the society and
sought by them precisely as members of society. The common good was more
complete than the private good of the individual and it was this completeness
‘which determined the greater excellence of the common good’.
And
lastly, an important theme of classical political tradition was the search for
an ideal state and the most stable system of government. Classical theorists
repeatedly asked questions like: Who should rule and why; what is the best form
of government? Theory was preoccupied with analysing the sources of conflict
and to enunciate the principles of justice which might guide the political
organization in discharging its distributive functions of assigning material
and non-material goods. The search for an ideal state provided an invaluable
means of practicing theory and of acquiring experience in its handling. The
trend of an idealist state as set by classical political theory had clear
reflection on later political thinking. The classical political tradition -a
tradition usually considered to include eighteen or so centuries sandwiched
between Plato and Machiavelli was considerably richer and more varied. However,
even differences that are more important and variations were yet to come. With
Renaissance, Reformation and industrial revolution, new ideas and events shook
the foundation of Western world. During this period a new school of political
theory was born, which was later known as liberalism.
Liberal
political theory
The
long spell of Plato, Aristotle, S. Augustine, Cicero and other thinkers of
classical age was broken in a variety of ways after the twin revolutions
of Renaissance and Reformation in Europe from 15th century onwards,
coupled with the industrial revolution later on. Renaissance produced a
new intellectual climate, which gave birth to modern science and modern
philosophy and a new political theory known as liberalism.
This
new political theory found classical expression in the writings of
Grotius, Hobbes, Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Jeremy Bentham,
J.S. Mill, Herbert Spencer and a host of other writers. Whereas classical
political theory considered the moral development of individual and the
evolution of the community as co-terminus, the liberal political theory
developed the concept of sovereign individual. The central theme of this
political theory was Individualism. It started with the belief in the absolute
value of human personality and spiritual equality of all individuals and in
the autonomy of individual will.
Secondly,
it believed in individual freedom in all spheres of life - political, economic,
social, intellectual, religious etc. Freedom meant as freedom from all
authority that is capable of acting arbitrarily and freedom to act in
accordance with the dictates of ‘right reason’.
Thirdly,
it brought in the concept of individual rights - that man is ‘endowed by his
creator with certain inalienable rights’ commonly known as the natural rights
of ‘life, liberty and property’. Since man and his rights exist prior to the
establishment of state, these cannot be bargained away when the state is
established.
Fourthly,-the
new theory declared that state is not a natural institution but comes into
existence by mutual consent for the sole purpose of preserving and protecting
the individual rights, The relation between state and the individual is
contractual and when the terms of the contract are violated, individuals not
only the right but the responsibility to revolt and establish a new government.
The state was not a natural institution as claimed by classical political
theory but a machine devised by men for certain specific purposes such as law,
order, protection, justice, and preservation of individual rights. The state is
useful to man but he is the master. Social control is best secured by law
rather than by command - the law which was conceived as being the product of
individual will and the embodiment of reason.
Fifthly,
the new political theory dismissed the idea of common good and an organic
community. Instead it gave the idea that ‘government that governs’ the least is
the best’ and the only genuine entity is the Individual. Political theory
during this period was not searching for an Ideal State or a Utopia but was
preoccupied with freeing the individual from the social and economic restraints
and from the tyrannical and non-representative governments. In this context, it
redefined the concept of state, relations between the individual and the state,
and developed the concepts of rights liberty, equality, property, justice and
democracy for the individual’
Marxist
political theory
Liberal-individualistic
political theory was challenged by Marx, Engles and their subsequent followers
in the later half nineteenth century by their ‘scientific socialism’. While
socialism extends back far beyond Marx’s time, it was he who brought together
many ideas about the ills of society and gave them a great sense of urgency and
relevancy. No political theory can ignore the study of Marxist history,
politics, society and economics. The knowledge of Marxism has put us in a
better position to analyse the socio, economic developments. Marxism introduced
a new concept of philosophy conceived as a way to the liberation of mankind.
The
task of knowledge, according to Marx, is not only to understand the world but
also to change the material conditions of human life. He insisted that the
salvation is to be found by man in this world itself and it laid in the
revolutionary reconstitution of the present society and the establishment of a
socialist society. His complaint against liberal capitalism was that it was a
civilization of property, inequality and family fortune for a few and most
degrading conditions for the vast number of people. Socialism was an attempt to
secure the necessary, if not sufficient, conditions for the realization of
emancipation of mankind. It is the establishment of a society on rational
basis—a society in which ‘man shall not be exploited by man’, a society in
which men will have the full opportunity to develop their potentialities and
personality, a classless and stateless society in which ‘the free development
of each shall be the condition for the free development of all’.
Marxist
political theory is a theory of social change and revolutionary reconstitution
of society. In this context, Marxism consists of three inter-related elements:
i)
An
examination and critique of the present and past societies. This is known as
Dialectical materialism and historical materialism;
ii)
ii)
the notion of an alternative model against a society based upon exploitation
and divided among classes. The new society is based on the common ownership of
the means of production in which human potential will be allowed to freely
develop its manifold facets. Such a society will be classless and stateless;
iii)
iii)
how to being about such a society’. Though there was a general agreement that
capitalist system was unstable and crisis-ridden but the advent of socialism
required a revolutionary action by the proletariat, whose growing
impoverishment will lead to revolution, and establishment of a socialist state
and society.
The
central themes of Marxist political theory are mode of production, class
division, class struggle, property relations, revolution and state as an
instrument of class domination. Marxism also examined the nature of rights,
liberty, equality, justice and democracy but came to the conclusion that in a
class divided society, they are the prerogatives of the propertied class. Real
liberty and equality can be achieved only in a classless and stateless society.
Thus
whereas liberal political theory was associated with the establishment of
modern liberal capitalist democratic state, Marxist political theory
preoccupied itself with the establishment of a socialist state through
revolutionary action. Marxism as the economic, social and political theory and
practice originating in the works of Marx and Engles, has been enriched by a
number of revolutionaries, philosophers, academicians and politicians.
It has
also been subject to a variety of interpretations. In the twentieth century,
the prominent contributors to the Marxist
thought have been Lenin, Bukharin, Stalin, Rose Luxemburg, Gramsci, Lukacs,
Austro- Marxists, the Frankfurt school, Herbert Marcuse, the New Left
theorists, Euro-communists, Mao Tse Tung and host of others. Up to the first
world war, Marxism was highly deterministic and represented a philosophy of
socio-political changes which culminated in the Russian revolution. However,
during the inter-war period and the post-second world war, Marxism developed
more as a critique of present socio-economic and cultural conditions than a
philosophy of revolutionary action. Known as contemporary Marxism, it has been
more concerned with the problems of superstructure, culture, art, aesthetics, ideology,
alienation etc.
Empirical-scientific
political theory
There
is another kind of political theory developed in America popularly known as the
Empirical-Scientific political theory. The study of political theory through
scientific method (instead of philosophical) and based upon facts (rather than
on values) has long history but the credit for making significant developments
in this connection goes to the American social scientists.
In
the early twentieth century, Max Weber, Graham Wallas and Bentley gave an
empirical dimension to the study of political theory and advocated that its
study should be based upon ‘facts’ only. Another writer George Catlin
emphasized that the study of political theory should be integrated with other
social sciences such as sociology, psychology, anthropology etc. However, it
was during the inter-war period and after the second world war that a new
theory was developed by the political scientists of Chicage University (known
as the Chicago School) such as Charles Merrium, Harold Lasswell, Gosnell, and
others like David Easton, Stuart Rice, V.O. Key and David Apter. The new
political theory shifted emphasis from the study of political ideals, values
and institutions to the examination of politics in the context of individual
and group behaviour. The new approach advocated that the method of studying
should be through the behaviour of human beings as members of political
community.
The
task of political theory is to formulate and systemtize the concept of science
of political behaviour in which emphasis is placed on empirical research than
on political philosophy. A political theorist should clarify and criticize
systems of concepts which have empirical relevance to political behaviour.
According to Easton, ‘systematic theory corresponds at the level of thought to
the concrete empirical political systems of daily life’. Empirical-Scientific
theory is different from the classical tradition in many respects. Firstly, the
scientific theory believes that the political theory is to order, explain and
predict the phenomena and not to evaluate it. Nor is it concerned with the
creation of grand political Utopias. What is worth noting is that the relation
with philosophy is completely severed.
Political
theory is meaningful to the point or degree it is verifiable. Secondly, the
study of political theory should be value free; it should concern itself with
‘facts’ only. The task of theory is to analyse the present political phenomena
and not with the evaluation of what is happening and what should happen. The
concern of political theory should not be with ‘who rules, should rule or why?’
but with only ‘who does rule and how’. It should focus attention on the study
of political behavior of man, group and institutions irrespective of their good
or bad character. Thirdly, practical theory is not only concerned with the
study of the state but also with the political process. Fourthly, scientific
theory does not believe in critical function, that is, it should not question
the basis of the state but should be concerned with maintaining the status
quo,stability, equilibrium and harmony in the society. Fifthly, it developed
many new concepts borrowed from other social sciences such as power, elite, decision-making,
policy-making, functioning of structures, political system, political culture
etc. Because of too much stress on science, value-free politics, methods and
its failure to study the pressing social and political issues, empirical
political theory began to attract criticism after 1960s.
The
‘Behavioural Revolution’ announced by David Easton laid less emphasis on
scientific method and technique and showed greater concern for the public
responsibilities of political theory, The debates in 1970s resulted in the
frank admission that there are segments of human life relating to values or
purposes embodied in any political structure that were either ignored or
overlooked by the behavioural studies. The core issues of political theory such
as liberty, equality, justice were taken up once again by John Rawls, Robert
Nozic, Habermas and others which signalled once again the revival of normative
political theory. This new revival is termed as contemporary political theory.
Contemporary
political theory
Since
1970s, there has been a revival of interest in political theory in USA, Europe
and other parts of the world. At the heart of this renaissance has been the
emerging clash of values on the one hand and the changes in the humanities and
social sciences, on the other. Moreover, the passing away of the shadows of
second world war, reemergence of Europe, and crisis in the ideologies of
socialism and Marxism brought about a new fluidity in political ideologies.
Whether
it is Marxism or socialism, liberalism or democracy - all stand challenged and
new powerful social movements are seeking to redraw the issues in political
theory. During the era of domination of behaviouralism, political theory was
overpowered by political science. Theory was denied the status of a legitimate
form of knowledge and inquiry. Though the hold of empiricism did not last long,
yet it left an enduring legacy in the development of political and social
sciences particularly in North America in the form of ‘scienticism’. The
encouragement for the regeneration of political theory came from many sources.
While
a number of thinkers (such as Thomas Kuhn) challenged the whole model of what
is science, there were others who felt that there are distinctive problems of
understanding the social sciences and social issues which could not be grasped
by the model of a unified science. This is because of\ two factors: Firstly,
the object of social sciences is the self-interpreting social being and
different thinkers interpret the social issues differently. Secondly, political
theory cannot be limited to a systematic account of politics; it must also
perform its critical role, i.e., its capacity to offer an account of politics
which transcends those of lay men. As a result of the great debates, a number of
important innovations in the study of political theory followed. Though it is
not possible to give a detailed account of these developments, a few
distinctive features of the contemporary political theory can be summerized as
follows:
1An
important feature of empirical theory was its break with history. Contemporary
political theorists believe that political theory must not be disassociated
from history. Political theory has Once again been renewed as history of
political thought.
2.
All knowledge about human activities involves interpretation and the
interpretation can lead to different conclusions. Hence the idea of political
theory being neutral and value-free is wrong.
3.
Political understanding cannot escape the history of tradition. Knowledge is a
part of the tradition and the process of understanding aspects of the world
contributes to our selfunderstanding. However, the process of
self-understanding is never complete. ‘History does not belong to us but we
belong to History’. There is no final truth. As such there can be no such thing
as ‘the only correct or the final’ understanding of the political phenomena.
The meaning of a text on political theory is always open to further
interrelations from new perspectives.
4.
Political theory is concerned with conceptual analysis. This involves seeing
political theory as a systematic reflection upon the meaning of the key terms
and concepts like sovereignty, democracy, right, liberty, justice etc.
5.
There is a revival of normative element. Contemporary political theory is
concerned with the systematic elaboration of the underlying structure of our
moral and political activities, as well as examination and reconstruction of
the principal political values such as justice, liberty, common good, community
living etc.
6.
Theory is concerned with both abstract theoretical questions and particular
political issues. This is due to the belief that consideration of political
concepts without detailed examination of the condition of their realization may
not be able to bring out the actual meaning of the concept. Political theory
should be problem-oriented and should probe issues like democracy, market,
equal opportunities in such contexts. Political theory is a theoretical aspect
of political science, trying to construct a theory on the basis of observation.
In
short, according to David Held, contemporary political theory involves four
distinct tasks: Firstly, it is philosophical, i.e. it is concerned with the normative
and conceptual framework; secondly, it is empirical, i.e., it is concerned with
the problem of understanding and explanation of the concepts; thirdly, it is
historical, i.e., it is concerned with the examination of the key concepts of
political theory in historical context; and finally, it is strategic, i.e. it
is concerned with an assessment of the feasibility of moving from where we are
to where we might likely to be. It is only through the combination of these
elements that the central problems of political theory can be solved.
CONCLUSION
Political
theory is a never ending dialogue. Speculation on politics will continue
because it relates to the life and values by which men live and die. The
goal of theory is to enhance our understanding of the social reality and
create conditions for good life. In this context, both classical and
empirical theories need to be synthesized.
Political
theory cannot be based purely either on philosophy or science. All
issues raised by philosophy must be examined within modes of
inquiry at empirical level. Conversely, the normative issues raised by
political science cannot be evaded. For example, the meaning of justice,
equality or freedom cannot be explained by science. Similarly, the problems of
our times - whether they are racial and ethnic tensions and bigotry,
overpopulation, unemployment, decaying cities, corruption, conflicts between
the nations - are such that we need every available brain to work for their
solution.
While
the political scientists produce more comprehensive explanation of how and why
things happen in the world of politics, the task of political philosopher is to
relate this knowledge with the big problems of mankind and to inquire into how
these can help in enhancing liberty, equality, justice and fraternity in the
society and among the peoples so as to create conditions for good life.
Lecture points prepared by Biju P R,
Assistant Professor in Political Science, Govt. Brennen College, Thalassery
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