Slave Technology: New Age Frankenstein by Biju P R. Published by Rupa Publications. 2019.

Slave Technology: New Age Frankenstein by Biju P R. Published by Rupa Publications. 2019.

Slave Technology: New Age Frankenstein by Biju P R. Published by Rupa Publications. 2019.

Game Theory of International Relations. Lecture Points

Game theory

Pokhran-I. India conducted its first nuclear detonation, described by India as a "peaceful nuclear explosion," on 18 May 1974. Smiling Buddha

Pokhran-II On 11 and 13 May 1998 Pokhran-II' was the series of five test nuclear bomb explosions by India at Pokhran Test Range

Chagai-I is the code name of five simultaneous underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15 hrs PST on 28 May 1998.[1]:281[3][4] The tests were performed at Ras Koh Hills in the Chagai District of Balochistan Province

Chagai-I was Pakistan's first public test of nuclear weapons. Its timing was a direct response to India's second nuclear tests, on 11 and 13 May 1998.

It is also known as interactive decision theory,

It studies the behavior of decision makers in situations of strategic interdependence.

Its founders are John Von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern who published the book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior in 1944.

It is a theory about strategic behavior in international relations.

Prisoner’s dilemma

The prisoner's dilemma is a situation where two people who committed a crime are being interrogated in separate rooms, giving them two choices on how to act, creating three possible outcomes. We'll call the prisoners Prisoner A and Prisoner B.

• If Prisoner A keeps his mouth shut and doesn't say anything, but Prisoner B spills his guts, Prisoner A will get the worst punishment, while Prisoner B will walk free.
• Symmetrically, if Prisoner A speaks up but Prisoner B stays silent, Prisoner A walks free and B is severely punished.
• If both Prisoner A and Prisoner B confess both get punished, but to a lesser degree.
• Lastly, if both keep their mouths shut, the police will not be able to convict either, forcing both to receive the least punishment for a different, unrelated crime.

Chicken Dilemma

The game of chicken, also known as the hawk-dove game or snowdrift game, is a model of conflict for two players in game theory.

Chicken is a famous game where two people drive on a collision course straight towards each other. Whoever swerves is considered a 'chicken' and loses, but if nobody swerves, they will both crash. So the payoff matrix looks something like this:

                  B swerves               B straight

A swerves            tie               A loses, B wins

A straight     B loses, A wins            both lose

Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is the Treaty banning all nuclear explosions - everywhere, by everyone. The Treaty was negotiated at the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva and adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. It opened for signature on 24 September 1996. Since then, the Treaty has reached near-universality. 182 countries have signed the Treaty – the last country to do so was Trinidad and Tobago on 8 October 2009 which also ratified the Treaty on 26 May 2010. 154 countries have ratified the Treaty – most recently Ghana on 14 June 2011.

Why is the CTBT so important?

The CTBT is the last barrier on the way to develop nuclear weapons.  It curbs the development of new nuclear weapons and the improvement of existing nuclear weapon designs. When the Treaty enters into force it provides a legally binding norm against nuclear testing. The Treaty also helps prevent human suffering and environmental damages caused by nuclear testing.

How many nuclear tests were conducted and by whom?

Between 1945 and 1996 when the CTBT was adopted, over 2000 nuclear tests were conducted by the United States (1000+), the Soviet Union (700+), France (200+), the United Kingdom and China (45 each). Three countries have carried out nuclear explosions after the 1996: India and Pakistan in 1998, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) in 2006 and 2009.

Why has the Treaty not entered into force yet?

The Treaty’s entry into force depends on 44 specific States  that must have signed and ratified the Treaty.  These States had nuclear facilities at the time the Treaty was negotiated and adopted. As of August 2011, 35 of these States have ratified the Treaty. Nine States still need to do so: China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Pakistan and the United States.  India, North Korea and Pakistan have not yet signed the Treaty. All 44 States are listed in the Treaty’s Annex 2.

What is the difference between signature and ratification?

The signature to a treaty indicates that the country accepts the treaty.  It commits not to take any actions that would undermine the treaty’s purposes. A treaty is signed by a senior representative of a country such as the president or the foreign minister.

The ratification symbolizes the official sanction of a treaty to make it legally binding for the government of a country.  This process involves the treaty’s adoption by the legislature of a country such as the parliament.  It also includes the submission of the so-called instrument of ratification to the treaty’s depository, which for the CTBT is the UN Secretary-General.  Only then is the process of ratification officially concluded. The ratification of a treaty may require the adjustment of a country’s legislation, reflecting its commitments under the treaty.

NPT The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty

The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), which entered into force in March 1970, seeks to inhibit the spread of nuclear weapons. Its 190 (191 with North Korea*) states-parties are classified in two categories: nuclear-weapon states (NWS)—consisting of the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom—and non-nuclear-weapon states (NNWS). Under the treaty, the five NWS commit to pursue general and complete disarmament, while the NNWS agree to forgo developing or acquiring nuclear weapons.
With its near-universal membership, the NPT has the widest adherence of any arms control agreement, with only South Sudan, India, Israel, and Pakistan remaining outside the treaty. In order to accede to the treaty, these states must do so as NNWS, since the treaty restricts NWS status to nations that "manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967." For India, Israel, and Pakistan, all known to possess or suspected of having nuclear weapons, joining the treaty as NNWS would require that they dismantle their nuclear weapons and place their nuclear materials under international safeguards. South Africa followed this path to accession in 1991.

Select Treaty Articles
Under Articles I and II of the treaty, the NWS agree not to help NNWS develop or acquire nuclear weapons, and the NNWS permanently forswear the pursuit of such weapons. To verify these commitments and ensure that nuclear materials are not being diverted for weapons purposes, Article III tasks the International Atomic Energy Agency with the inspection of the non-nuclear-weapon states' nuclear facilities. In addition, Article III establishes safeguards for the transfer of fissionable materials between NWS and NNWS.
Article IV acknowledges the "inalienable right" of NNWS to research, develop, and use nuclear energy for non-weapons purposes. It also supports the "fullest possible exchange" of such nuclear-related information and technology between NWS and NNWS. Article V, now effectively obsolete, permits NNWS access to NWS research and development on the benefits of nuclear explosions conducted for peaceful purposes. As the perceived utility of peaceful nuclear explosions has diminished over time, the relevance of this clause has lost much of its practical value. It is now moot due to the restriction on all nuclear explosions mandated by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty—to which all five NWS are signatories.
Article VI commits the NWS to "pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control." Acknowledging the necessity of intermediate steps in the process of nuclear disarmament, Article VII allows for the establishment of regional nuclear-weapon-free-zones.
Article VIII requires a complex and lengthy process to amend the treaty, effectively blocking any changes absent clear consensus. Article X establishes the terms by which a state may withdraw from the treaty, requiring three month's advance notice should "extraordinary events" jeopardize its supreme national interests.
The remainder of the treaty deals with its administration, providing for a review conference every five years and a decision after 25 years on whether the treaty should be extended. The 1995 review conference extended the treaty indefinitely and enhanced the review process by mandating that the five-year review conferences review past implementation and address ways to strengthen the treaty.
For more on the history of the NPT and its review conferences, see the Timeline of the Treaty of the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT).

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NOTE
*North Korea announced January 10, 2003 that it was withdrawing from the treaty, effective the next day. Although Article X of the NPT requires that a country give three months notice in advance of withdrawing, North Korea argued that it satisfied this requirement because it originally announced its decision to withdraw March 12, 1993, and suspended the decision one day before it was to become legally binding. There is not yet a definitive legal opinion as to whether North Korea is still a party to the NPT.

India did not sign NPT because it is a flawed treaty with no basis of recognizing states which should have the nuclear energy.

Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT as it most commonly known, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.

The treaty recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states: the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China(also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council).

This effectively means that the only those 5 countries are allowed to have nuclear weapons.

What is even funnier and important to note that this treaty was formalized in 1968. Any state which was reported to have done detonation before that were recognized as nuclear-weapon state.

India, did it’s first test in 1974 -Smiling Buddha. And thus the only way for India to join this treaty would be if it promises to not be nuclear weapon state.

This is not acceptable to India because of two main reasons -

1. India shares it borders with Pakistan and China. Both of them are nuclear states.
2. Energy Independence - India is dependent on import of energy and is not self-reliant. Nuclear energy provides alternative for India to be self-reliant

There was no way to determine if any nation indeed requires nuclear power or not in the treaty. There was no framework in the treaty for the countries which truly required nuclear energy. As Pranab Mukherjee said - NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.

Keeping restriction on any nations’s ability for peaceful uses is not justified. Every nation has the right to use nuclear power for peaceful uses.

Disarmament

Have you seen a picture of a mushroom cloud from a nuclear explosion? It brings a gamut of emotions: fear, worry, awe, and wonder. The nuclear weapon has awesome power and, without mincing words, has the capability to destroy mankind. Many want these weapons reduced or removed altogether, and this sentiment is not a new one. The call for disarmament, or a general reduction of weapons and stockpiles, has always been an issue in world affairs. The United Nations has had conferences and treaties to pursue a reduction in such weapons.

Disarmament is the process of reducing or eliminating military forces and weapons through cooperation, treaties, and oversight. Learn about disarmament in this lesson, and take a quiz at the end. Disarmament means the reduction of arms and weapons through international treaties and agreements signed in between two or more  states. It’s an attempt to eliminate or radically reduce armaments. It can be distinguished from the concept of arms control, which entails restraint but not necessarily reduction in the number and kinds of weapons available to states. Most disarmament proposals are based on the assumption that weapons are an important source of conflict in themselves.

Definition and Considerations

Disarmament is not something that can be easily defined in a few words. In truth, there are four key parts to it:

1. Reduction in quantity of military items
2. Formal meeting and treaty to achieve
3. Emphasis on weapons and tools
4. Body or group overseeing the process

These four parts lead to a detailed definition, and a detailed plan of action as well. Disarmament is usually focused on weapons, but can include other areas, such as tools and technologies.
The United Nations (U.N.) has been a mediator in arms reduction since the 1960s. They pass resolutions (formal statements of their position), have special committees focused solely on negotiating for disarmament, and have special units that oversee and help with the process.
Ultimately, the main purpose of disarmament is world peace and the survival of mankind. It is a concept that has existed for more than 100 years in the modern world. With each passing conflict, the weapons and tools marked for reduction have evolved. For example, the big weapon in World War I was mustard gas, a biological weapon that saw a post-war call for reductions. In the Cold War, nuclear weapons took center stage.

History of Disarmament:                                

Historically, disarmament has taken place in two contrasting ways. First, after a war, disarmament has often been imposed on the defeated state by the victor. For example, in 1919 the Treaty of Versailles limited the German army to 100,000 troops, thereby effectively eliminating an army that could be capable of offensive activity. A similar restriction was placed on Germany and Japan after the Second World War. But still the victors have been unable to remain united and unwilling to act together to enforce these prohibitions. Nazi Germany established training area sand munitions factories in the Soviet Union after the First World War without suffering any penalties, and as the cold war intensified after 1945, a primary concern of US foreign policy became rebuilding the military might of Japan and West Germany. The other type of disarmament is voluntary disarmament, in which states seek to negotiate a mutually acceptable framework within which all parties will reduce the size of their military establishments.

Types of disarmament:

While the ultimate logic of disarmament points to the total elimination of all weapons, the main types of disarmament plans can be identified.

A first type of disarmament is General and Complete Disarmament (GCD), which seeks the total elimination of all weapons. If this ever happened, the fundamental nature of international relations would be radically transformed.

A second form of disarmament is regional disarmament. It seeks to reduce or to eliminate weapons from a particular geographic area. Over the last five decades regional disarmament plans have frequently taken the form of proposals for nuclear-free zones. A major barrier to the successful negotiation of such agreements is that,once a state in a region has acquired nuclear weapons, it is difficult to prevent others from doing likewise. This was the main problem that ultimately prevented the implementation of the often proposed South Asian Nuclear-Free Zone. Today, both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons, and the proposal looks very unlikely to be implemented in the foreseeable future. However, the history of regional disarmament is not all hopeless. Four main regional agreements remain in effect.

1. In 1967 the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America, also known as the Treaty of Tlatelolco, was signed. This treaty prohibits the testing, possession, and deployment of nuclear weapons in the region.
2. Similarly,the 1959 Antarctic Treaty bans the use of Antarctica for military purposes, including nuclear testing.
3. In 1967 an Outer Space Treaty prohibited states from placing nuclear weapons in earth orbit or stationing them in outer space.
4. In 1971 a treaty was signed banning states from placing nuclear weapons on the seabed known as Seabed Treaty.

While the existence of such treaties may provide supporters of disarmament with some hope that they can be extended, it should be pointed out that treaties such as those just mentioned are not strictly about disarmament.Rather, they represent agreements by states not to develop weapons that they were not planning to build in the first place and  not to deploy weapons in areas that are of peripheral strategic value. Were these conditions ever to change, it is unlikely that the mere existence of such treaties would deter states from breaking them.

Conferences and Treaties

There have been many international conferences that have attempted disarmament among the nations of the world. Often, the meetings have ended in some sort of treaty or agreement. Such agreements sought to end the use of a certain weapon and create an enforcement body. Here are some examples:

• International Peace Conference (Hague Convention) 1899: outlined rules of war and prohibited the use of balloon-dropped weapons, poison gas, and specific ammunition
• London Naval Conferences of 1908-1909, 1930, and 1935: listed military items that could not be shipped on open seas, created regulations for confiscating them, and created and modified restrictions on the size of naval vessels
• Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) and Geneva Naval Conference (1927): created ratios for naval power based on a country's size and international presence; some countries had to scrap entire ships
• World Disarmament Conference (1932-1934): Attempting to avoid another WWI, it sought to reduce offensive attack weapons (versus those for defense) and create an international police unit to enforce disarmament. However, Adolf Hitler rose to power during the conference and all attention was turned to Germany's aggression.
• Baruch Plan and Gromyko Plan (1946): competing U.S. and Soviet Union plans to reduce and eliminate atomic weapons and create a control system for future weapons; both plans failed
• Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (1963): restricted where nuclear weapons could be tested and strategically placed